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Formation mechanisms and characterisation of porosity in cast iron
Jönköping University, School of Engineering, JTH, Materials and Manufacturing.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-6491-2418
2025 (English)Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Cast Iron, despite being used for thousands of years, is yet to be a perfected art, with a significant portion of losses caused by porosity in the cast components. Porosity leads to substantially increased costs, waste of embodied energy, and environmental emissions. Minimizing these defects demands a thorough understanding of their causes and effective corrective measures.

Driven by the necessity to produce lighter and more efficient components, heavy-duty powertrains have increasingly adopted compacted graphite cast iron (CGI) as the current state-of-the-art in engine components. However, CGI’s recent adoption, facilitated by advanced process control methods, has also increased susceptibility to defects. The work presented in this thesis investigated the mechanisms surrounding porosity defect formation in CGI, particularly when compared to the extensively studied spheroidal graphite cast iron (SGI) and lamellar graphite cast iron (LGI).

A case study was conducted in cooperation with several cast iron producers. Components containing porosity defects stemming from complex heavy castings were analysed in depth and compared to the literature information available regarding porosity defects. These analyses identified knowledge gaps, motivating the development of a novel experimental methodology capable of controlling key variables affecting pore formation, including gas composition within the pore, pore formation temperature, melt composition, and graphite morphology. Knowledge gaps highlighted in the case studies were targeted. Notably, although graphite film formation was previously largely attributed to the pore gas composition, its occurrence within inert argon-filled pores indicates the involvement of additional mechanisms.

The present work also evaluated the partitioning behavior of nitrogen during solidification. A discrepancy in reported nitrogen partition coefficients was identified between existing literature and thermodynamic databases. Partitioning affects its segregation behavior and consequently the tendency for porosity formation. A hold and quench experiment has shown that nitrogen tends to partition towards the liquid phase during solidification, which suggests it can significantly contribute to pore nucleation and growth. This finding further stresses the importance of selecting databases that accurately represent the behavior of the system of interest, while simultaneously highlighting the need to improve the accuracy of existing ones.

These findings offer critical insights for improved process control, ultimately supporting the production of more reliable and efficient CGI components.

Abstract [sv]

Trots att gjutjärn använts under tusentals år är konsten att gjuta det utan defekter långt ifrån fulländad. Idag härleds en betydande del av produktionsförlusterna till porositet i de gjutna komponenterna, vilket resulterar i ett avsevärt slöseri med energi och ökade utsläpp till miljön. För att minimera dessa defekter krävs djupgående förståelse av deras orsaker samt effektiva korrigerande åtgärder.

Det ökade behovet av lättare och effektivare komponenter för drivlinor för tung industri har expanderat användningen av kompaktgrafitjärn (CGI) för motorkomponenter. CGI:s relativt nya introduktion, möjliggjord av mer avancerad processtyrningsmetoder, har dock även lett till ökad känslighet för defekter. Syftet med denna avhandling är att kartlägga graden av förståelse kring porositetsdefekter i CGI jämfört med det mer ingående studerade segjärnet (SGI) och gråjärnet (LGI).

Ett flertal fallstudier har genomförts i samarbete med flera gjutjärnsproducenter. Komponenter med porositetsdefekter från komplexa och tunga gjutgods analyserades noggrant och jämfördes med literaturen kring porositetsdefekter. Dessa analyser identifierade kunskapsluckor som motiverade utvecklingen av en ny experimentell metodik, där avgörande variabler kring porbildning kunde kontrolleras systematiskt, inklusive gassammansättning i poren, porbildningstemperatur, smältsammansättning och grafitens morfologi. Kunskapsluckorna från fallstudierna hade ett särskilt fokus. Det visades bland annat att grafitfilmer, tidigare huvudsakligen kopplade till gassammansättningen, kunde bildas även i porer fyllda med inert argongas, vilket antyder att andra mekanismer också bidrar till detta fenomen.

Denna studie undersökte även fördelningsbeteendet av kväve under stelningsprocessen. En diskrepans gällande kvävets fördelningskoefficient identifierades i befintlig litteratur och termodynamiska databaser. Fördelningsbeteendet påverkar segregation av kväve och därmed även benägenheten för porbildning. Genom så kallade ”hold and quench”-experiment visades att kväve tenderar att fördelas mot den flytande fasen under stelning, vilket innebär att det kan spela en betydande roll vid kärnbildning och tillväxt av porer. Detta resultat understryker vikten av att använda termodynamiska databaser som noggrant speglar de undersökta systemens beteenden.

Dessa resultat erbjuder viktiga insikter för förbättrad processtyrning och bidrar i förlängningen till produktionen av mer tillförlitliga och effektiva CGI-komponenter

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Jönköping: Jönköping University, School of Engineering , 2025. , p. 44
Series
JTH Dissertation Series ; 096
Keywords [en]
Compacted graphite iron, Spheroidal graphite iron, Lamellar graphite iron, Solidification, Porosity, Microsegregation
Keywords [sv]
kompaktgrafitjärn, segjärnet, gråjärn, stelning, porositet, mikrosegregation
National Category
Metallurgy and Metallic Materials
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:hj:diva-67770ISBN: 978-91-89785-25-0 (print)ISBN: 978-91-89785-26-7 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:hj-67770DiVA, id: diva2:1958670
Presentation
2025-06-13, E1405 (Gjuterisalen), Tekniska Högskolan, Jönköping University, Jönköping, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2025-05-16 Created: 2025-05-16 Last updated: 2025-10-13Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Unraveling compacted and nodular cast iron porosity: Case studies approach
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Unraveling compacted and nodular cast iron porosity: Case studies approach
2024 (English)In: International Journal of metalcasting, ISSN 1939-5981, E-ISSN 2163-3193, Vol. 18, p. 1811-1830Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Porosity is the culprit for a large fraction of scrap in cast iron foundries, resulting in significant environmental and productivity losses. The present work focuses on characterizing and explaining porosity defects in industrial compacted and nodular graphite cast iron components, utilizing current literature for reference. The goal is to identify existing knowledge gaps in the field, fostering further research work. Complex-shaped castings were sampled from three foundries, weighing between 100 and 300 kg. These were carefully selected to capture recurring defects during stable production. The mechanisms behind these defects were discussed, and the findings were compared to the literature. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to investigate the inner surfaces of the pores with secondary electron imaging. The surrounding microstructure was captured with optical microscopy in combination with image analysis, where panoramic images and nodularity maps were built. Ultimately, etching based on Si segregation was employed. The results suggest that the understanding of pore surface film formation remains limited, particularly regarding graphite film formation. Notably, the observations reveal a multitude of previously unreported graphite structures within the pores, some with particles in their centers containing Ce, Ca, La and S. These novel structures can provide additional insights regarding pore formation chronology.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer, 2024
Keywords
cast iron, component casting, solidification, porosity
National Category
Metallurgy and Metallic Materials
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hj:diva-62559 (URN)10.1007/s40962-023-01149-9 (DOI)001091511000001 ()2-s2.0-85172080159 (Scopus ID)HOA;;907153 (Local ID)HOA;;907153 (Archive number)HOA;;907153 (OAI)
Funder
Knowledge Foundation
Available from: 2023-10-02 Created: 2023-10-02 Last updated: 2025-10-13Bibliographically approved
2. Assessing Pore Formation due to Nitrogen Partitioning in a Hypoeutectic Cast Iron
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Assessing Pore Formation due to Nitrogen Partitioning in a Hypoeutectic Cast Iron
2025 (English)In: International Journal of metalcasting, ISSN 1939-5981, E-ISSN 2163-3193, Vol. 19, p. 3028-3037Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Pore formation in cast iron castings is driven both by shrinkage and dissolved gases, where the latter stems from supersaturated gaseous species, such as nitrogen. During solidification, nitrogen partitions between the austenite and the liquid according to the ratio of its solubility in each phase. This ratio, known as the partition coefficient, is essential to characterize, as accumulation in the liquid phase can lead to critical supersaturation for pore formation. However, there is conflicting information in CALPHAD databases and literature regarding its partitioning behavior. This work evaluates nitrogen partitioning between the primary austenite and the liquid in a hypoeutectic lamellar cast iron alloy. To investigate this, a cylindrical specimen was produced and remelted under an inert atmosphere, allowing the austenite and the liquid to establish a solute equilibrium. After 6 days of holding at 1175 °C within the solid–liquid biphasic range, the specimen was quenched, and samples were extracted from the austenitic and liquid regions, which had transformed into martensite and ledeburite, respectively. The nitrogen concentration was measured by inert gas fusion (IGF), resulting in a nitrogen partition coefficient = 0.72±0.08, which represents partition in the opposite direction suggested by thermodynamic databases. The results indicate that there are opportunities to further explore nitrogen partitioning in other compositions and highlight the importance of selecting databases that more accurately represent the phenomena of interest. Moreover, a better understanding of nitrogen partitioning can enhance the control of porosity in cast iron processing.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer, 2025
Keywords
cast iron, component casting, solidification, microsegregation, nitrogen
National Category
Materials Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hj:diva-67122 (URN)10.1007/s40962-024-01521-3 (DOI)001394843600001 ()2-s2.0-85217217107 (Scopus ID)HOA;;995988 (Local ID)HOA;;995988 (Archive number)HOA;;995988 (OAI)
Funder
Knowledge Foundation
Note

This work was made possible through the IFT:Jönköping project (Grant Number 20210082), co-financed by the Swedish Knowledge Foundation, Jönköping University, Scania CV AB, Volvo Group Trucks Technology AB, SinterCast AB, Bruzaholms Bruk AB, and SKF Mekan AB.

Available from: 2025-01-27 Created: 2025-01-27 Last updated: 2025-12-15Bibliographically approved
3. A systematic study of pore surface characteristics under inert gas in cast iron
Open this publication in new window or tab >>A systematic study of pore surface characteristics under inert gas in cast iron
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Metallurgy and Metallic Materials
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:hj:diva-67771 (URN)
Note

Included in licentiate thesis in manuscript form.

Available from: 2025-05-16 Created: 2025-05-16 Last updated: 2025-10-13

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